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![]() ![]() The outermost part of the Sun’s atmosphere is Corona. It can be seen as red flashes in the period of a total solar eclipse. The chromosphere is primarily red in visible light. As we move higher, the temperature rises to around 20,000 ﹾC (36,032 ﹾF) at the top of the chromosphere. The chromosphere layer is present above the photosphere and is around 2,000 km thick. The solar atmosphere starts from the photosphere, and its temperature is about 5,800 ﹾC or 10,000 ﹾF. However, if we could look at the Sun directly, we would see the photosphere. We should never stare at the Sun directly without proper glasses. This is the region from where the light we see from the Sun originates. The photosphere is the first part of the Sun visible to us. When the material reaches the top of the convection zone, it cools by giving light. ![]() This pattern of heated material rising, and cooling takes place in giant bubbles called convection cells. The heat from the side of the radiative zone rises till it cools sufficiently, then it sinks. Energy (in the form of heat) is like the bubbles in a pot of boiling water. When the radiative zone’s density becomes low, energy from the core region, which is present in the form of light, is converted into heat. This layer of the Sun is present above the radiative zone. This layer is not as dense as the core, but it is still so dense that light from the core region bounces around, which takes around 100,000 years to move through the radiative zone. Light emitted by nuclear fusion in the core region travels out in the next zone of the Sun called the radiative zone. The density slowly decreases when it moves away from the core. This layer of the Sun is above the super-dense core. The core is about 150 times as dense as water, and it has a burning temperature of around 15 million ﹾC or 28 million ﹾF. The state of matter is made of charged particles in plasma. Due to this, the core is a gas made of charged particles. The temperature is so high that atoms have been exposed to their electrons. The temperature in the core region is around 15 million ﹾK. The fusion reactions convert hydrogen nuclei into helium nuclei. It produces the energy that reaches Earth. In the Sun’s core, nuclear fusion takes place. The core is the power generator in the Sun present in its center. It is the hottest part of the Sun, where nuclear fusion reactions occur. I have generalised from a quasi-static case to a moving rope in any static spherically symmetric spacetime, see MacLaurin 2019, "Cosmic cable", forthcoming hopefully in the proceedings of the 2018 Marcel Grossmann conference.The core is situated at the center. We assume the rope is ridiculously strong. Note Gibbons (1972) was the first to analyse the tension in the rope, although there is an error as pointed out by Unruh & Wald (1982) and Redmount (1984). I have personally researched proposal number 2. Penrose claims doing this with a rotating black hole, one can release >100%, but without doing the calculations I am skeptical. Think of the energy as released from gravitational potential (see Buzz's answer). Use the force to turn a turbine or something. Slowly lower an object on a rope towards a black hole. Repeat this enough and it approaches 100% efficiency of mass-energy conversion. ![]() Form the new black holes into pairs and repeat the process. Take pairs of black holes in space, let them spiral them around one another until they merge, and harvest the energy of the emitted gravitational waves. These are completely impractical by the standards of human technology, but fun, and informative about physics concepts :) Penrose describes three methods in his classic review article "Gravitational collapse" (1969). Forgive me for answering with black holes anyway. You exclude black holes, particularly the Penrose process for extracting the rotational energy of a spinning black hole. (You cannot manufacture the antimatter without putting in just as much energy as you intend to obtain from the annihilation reaction.) So this option will not function with a generic hunk of source matter as your potential fuel. However, it requires you to have ready sources of both matter and antimatter, which is not necessarily possible on large scales. The most efficient non-gravitational way of extracting energy from ordinary matter is indeed to convert it into elements in the $^(1)$-of order 1] fraction of a dropped particle's entire mass energy.įinally, there is also direct matter/antimatter annihilation, which lets you get all the mass energy out of the source material. ![]()
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